Martn M.A., Siles J.A., Chica A.F., Martn A. Biomethanization of orange peel waste. Lemon oil was neither irritating nor sensitizing to volunteers when tested at 10% [167], and similar results were observed for distilled lime oil when tested at 15 and 100% [167]. When applied to mice, then irradiated with UV light, bergamot oil showed a carcinogenic action due to the presence of bergapten [172]. distillation from the peel and solidsleft over Naganuma M., Hirose S., Nakayama Y., Nakajima K., Someya T. A study of the phototoxicity of lemon oil. Oral administration of lemon EO inhibited 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)-induced neoplasia of the lungs and forestomach of female mice [91]. Essential oil from, Shafreen R.B., Lubinska M., Raska A., Dymerski T., Namienik J., Katrich E., Gorinstein S. Human serum interactions with phenolic and aroma substances of Kaffir (, Spadaro F., Costa R., Circosta C., Occhiuto F. Volatile composition and biological activity of key lime, Tundis R., Loizzo M.R., Bonesi M., Menichini F., Mastellone V., Colica C., Menichini F. Comparative study on the antioxidant capacity and cholinesterase inhibitory activity of, Amorim J.L., Simas D.L.R., Pinheiro M.M.G., Moreno D.S.A., Alviano C.S., Da Silva A.J.R., Fernandes P.D. Volpato G.T., Francia-Farje L.A.D., Damasceno D.C., Renata V.O., Cllia A.H.-L., Wilma G.K. Effect of essential oil from. Yavari Kia P., Safajou F., Shahnazi M., Nazemiyeh H. The effect of lemon inhalation aromatherapy on nausea and vomiting of pregnancy: A double-blinded, randomized, controlled clinical trial. The main components in the essential oil of bitter orange leaf are linalyl acetate and linalool [16], while the flower EO contained linalool as the major component, followed by d-limonene and linalyl acetate [20]. Food flavorings and compounds of related structure. from sour orange. The largest Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Ceccarelli I., Masi F., Fiorenzani P., Aloisi A.M. Costa C.A.R.A., Cury T.C., Cassettari B.O., Takahira R.K., Florio J.C., Costa M. Yi L.-T., Xu H.-L., Feng J., Zhan X., Zhou L.-P., Cui C.-C. Involvement of monoaminergic systems in the antidepressant like effect of nobiletin. Avila-Sosa R., Navarro-Cruz A.R., Sosa-Morales M.E., Lpez-Malo A., Palou E. Kirbaslar F.G., Tavman A., Dlger B., Trker G. Antimicrobial activity of Turkish citrus peel oils. This extract also showed hypocholesterolemic effect both in vitro and in vivo by reducing the weight gain, lipid accumulation, liver fat content, liver weight, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [156]. Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants. Received 2018 Jun 6; Accepted 2018 Jul 3. Effects of long-term exposure of lemon essential oil odor on behavioral, hormonal and neuronal parameters in male and female rats. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Neroli and yuzu oils are neither irritating nor sensitizing [167]. Lehrner J., Eckersberger C., Walla P., Potsch G., Deecke L. Ambient odor of orange in a dental office reduces anxiety and improves mood in female patients. In addition, it has been shown to reduce neuronal damage caused in vitro by excitotoxic stimuli by preventing an injury-induced decrease of phosphorylated protein kinase B (phospho-Akt) and phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3 (phospho-GSK-3) levels [137,138]. When mixed with patchouli oil, grapefruit EO is known to lower cravings and hunger, which makes it a great tool to lose weight in a healthy way [116]. Citrus reticulata EO showed an anti-proliferative effect against human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HELFs) and showed protective effects against bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rats. Expressed sweet orange oil was neither irritating nor sensitizing to 25 volunteers when tested at 8 and 100% [167], whereas it caused sensitivity to 0.13% of total dermatitis patients when tested at 2% [169]. word of caution: citrus oils, which in aromatherapy are called Citrus oils are most plentiful in the oil glands of fruit Fujii T., Furukawa S., Suzuki S. Studies on compounded perfumes for toilet goods. With the exception of some phototoxicity of expressed oils, they are generally safe to use with negligible toxicity to humans. Thresholds of terpinolene skin sensitization are not known. number of possible combinations each with a different name is 18, all Proposals for the residues recovery: Orange waste as raw material for new products. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. The odor of sweet orange decreases the symptoms of anxiety and improves the mood [31]. Phototoxicity risk, irritation of the undiluted oil, acute dermal LD50 in rabbits, acute oral LD50 in rats, and maximum dermal use level for different essential oils from Citrus species. It completely inhibited the viability of Aedes aegypti eggs exposed at 400 ppm, and inhibits its larval development at 100 ppm [122]. Cosentino M., Luini A., Bombelli R., Corasaniti M.T., Bagetta G., Marino F. The essential oil of bergamot stimulates reactive oxygen species production in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Lemon (, Viuda-Martos M., Ruiz-Navajas Y., Fernndez-Lpez J., Perez-lvarez J. Antibacterial activity of lemon (. fruit in a concentrated form. Effects of limonene and essential oil from. In addition, it has an intense larvicidal activity against the malaria vector, Anopheles labranchiae [46], and the vector of yellow and dengue fever, Aedes aegypti [47]. The third Caccioni D.R., Guizzardi M., Biondi D.M., Renda A., Ruberto G. Relationship between volatile components of citrus fruit essential oils and antimicrobial action on. Yuzu odor promotes mind and body health in Japan [152]. It was also reported to have antifungal effects against dermatophytes of the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton [146]. Rimini S., Petracci M., Smith D.P. Dugo P., Mondello L., Sebastiani E., Ottan R., Errante G., Dugo G. Identification of minor oxygen heterocyclic compounds of citrus essential oils by liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectrometry. The high citral content of lime EO causes potential toxic and myelotoxic effects [110]. The .gov means its official. Singh P., Shukla R., Prakash B., Kumar A., Singh S., Mishra P.K., Dubey N.K. Sweet orange EO showed anticarcinogenic potential via inducing apoptosis in human leukemia (HL-60) cells [28] and human colon cancer cells [29], and inhibiting angiogenesis and metastasis [29]. Acute effects of bergamot oil on anxiety-related behaviour and corticosterone level in rats. The percentages of these non-volatile constituents in expressed oils are given in Table 2. The Essential Oils Complete Reference Guide: Over 250 Recipes for Natural Wholesome Aromatherapy. It is not mutagenic or genotoxic. another typefrom young leaves and twigs. Pino J.A., Rosado A. Raina A., Bland J., Doolittle M., Lax A., Folkins M., Raina A., Bland J., Doolittle M., Lax A., Boopathy R.A.J., et al. are often carelessly used interchangeably. In: Lawrence B.M., editor. The acute dermal LD50 of d-limonene was >5 g/kg in rabbits, while the acute oral LD50 was >5 g/kg in rats [167]. The mechanism underlying its antimicrobial and antifungal effect is thought to be via increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, relevant to its action in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes [132]. Due to their pleasant refreshing smell and rich aroma, Citrus EOs are also used in air-fresheners, household cleaning products, perfumes, cosmetics, and medicines. The acute dermal LD50 was 5.61 g/kg in rabbits, while the acute oral LD50 was 2.79 g/kg in rats [183] and 2.23.92 g/kg in mice [184]. Inhaling lemon EO causes anti-stress effects through modulating the 5-HT and dopamine (DA) activities in mice [88,89]. Anwar S., Ahmed N., Speciale A., Cimino F., Saija A. It is also an effective anthelmintic agent against gastrointestinal nematodes; five times more effective on Haemonchus contortus eggs than tea tree EO [51]. An example: sour orange oil is made fromcommon, It showed strong anxiolytic activity in rodents without any motor impairment, even after 15 consecutive days of treatment [55]. An official website of the United States government. important sector of citrus oil use is the production of. Grapefruit oil was neither irritating nor sensitizing to volunteers when tested at 10 and 100% [167]. Ramadan W., Mourad B., Ibrahim S., Sonbol F. Oil of bitter orange: New topical antifungal agent. Antimicrobial assays of natural extracts and their inhibitory effect against Listeria innocua and fish spoilage bacteria, after incorporation into biopolymer edible films. Because of their high economic importance, numerous studies have investigated the chemical composition of the peel, leaf, and flower essential oils of different Citrus species. Prolonged exposure (for 2 weeks) to lemon EO induces significant changes in neuronal circuits involved in anxiety and pain in rats [96]. Da Silva J.K.R., Maia J.G.S., Dosoky N.S., Setzer W.N. It is worth noting that there is a great variation in the chemical composition of Citrus oils due to differences in origin, genetic background, season, climate, age, ripening stage, method of extraction, etc. Lv Y.X., Zhao S.P., Zhang J.Y., Zhang H., Xie Z.H., Cai G.M., Jiang W.H. The genus Citrus (Rutaceae) is one of the ancient, most traded, and most popular crops. Rats exposed to lemon EO were able to find a target point faster than a control group [89]. Wattenberg L., Coccia J.B. Inhibition of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone carcinogenesis in mice by D-limonene and citrus fruit oils. Williamson E.M., Priestley C.M., Burgess I.F. These aromatic substancesare seldom real oils. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Bitter orange EO is used as a natural antiseizure and anticonvulsant agent. Chronic skin pigmentation (also known as berloque dermatitis, bergapten dermatitis, or photophytodermatitis) can also develop. Li Y.L., Yeung C.M., Chiu L.C., Cen Y.Z., Ooi V.E. Essential Oil SafetyA Guide for Health Care Professionals. Ullah N., Khan M.A., Khan T., Ahmad W. Nephroprotective potentials of, Friedman M., Henika P.R., Levin C.E., Mandrell R.E. Major volatile components in essential oils of different Citrus spp. The term 'oil' Kasahara K., Takahashi E., Nishibori K. Suppressing effect of yuzu peel on the odor of Niboshi soup stock. Bitter orange EO was neither irritating nor sensitizing to 25 volunteers when tested at 10% [167], while it caused sensitivity to 1.5% of total dermatitis patients when tested at 2% [169]. with different characteristics and a different name can be obtained Lin C.M., Sheu S.R., Hsu S.C., Tsai Y.H. Yip Y.B., Tam A.C.Y. It is a non-irritant at 115%, and non-phototoxic [188]. The oil is used to facilitate wound healing [132]. Determination of bactericidal efficacy of essential oil extracted from orange peel on the food contact surfaces. Anxiolytic effect of. Lemon EO is a natural stress reliever. The The origin of Citrus is still controversial; however, it is believed to have originated from Southeast Asia [2]. Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties of. oils are chemical compounds which contain the flavour and aroma of the Berliocchi L., Ciociaro A., Russo R., Cassiano M.G.V., Blandini F., Rotiroti D., Morrone L.A., Corasaniti M.T. In vitro and in vivo effect of, Asnaashari S., Delazar A., Habibi B., Vas R., Nahar L., Hamedeyazdan S., Sarker S.D. When lemon EO was tested at 20% and applied topically on the infected parts of rabbits once a week for four successive weeks, the infected rabbits completely recovered after the second week of treatment [105]. Chemopreventive effect of orange oil on the development of hepatic preneoplastic lesions induced by. Fisher K., Phillips C.A. Anwar F., Naseer R., Bhanger M.I., Ashraf S., Talpur F.N., Aladedunye F.A. Citrus EOs are broadly used as natural food additives in several food and beverage products [7] because they have been classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) [8]. Matsumoto T., Kimura T., Hayashi T. Aromatic effects of a Japanese citrus fruit-yuzu (, Matsumoto T., Kimura T., Hayashi T. Does Japanese citrus fruit yuzu (. Lemon EO significantly enhanced attention level, concentration, cognitive performance, mood, and memory of students during the learning process [100]. It displayed a reduction in body weight and food consumption in ketotifen-induced obese mice [106]. Furthermore, bitter orange EO was effective in reducing the severity of first-stage labor pain and anxiety in primiparous women [59], as well as in alleviating moderate and severe knee pain [34]. It possesses minimal toxicity. It was also effective in controlling multi-species biofilms [65]. Grapefruit EO promotes body cleansing and removal of toxins and excess fluids [116]. Geranyl acetate has anti-inflammatory [189], antifungal [189], and antimicrobial properties [190]. Bigarade oil is produced from the outer Bergamot oil and its d-Limonene were reported to modulate autophagic pathways in SH-SY5Y cells [125]. Lemon EO significantly reduces lipid peroxidation levels and nitrile content, but increases reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, as well as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activities in mouse hippocampus [93]. De Freitas R.M., Camplo L.M.L., de Almeida A.A.C., de Freitas R.L.M., Cerqueira G.S., de Sousa G.F., Saldanha G.B., Feitosa C.M. Due to the presence of limonene, bitter orange EO possesses its gastroprotective and ulcer healing actions through increasing the gastric production of mucus, which is useful as a secondary intervention in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases [60]. It also showed a good anti-aflatoxigenic effects (inhibited aflatoxin B1) at 500 ppm [44]. Powers K.A., Beasley V.R. Biol. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Lemon EO causes activation of the sympathetic nerve activity innervating the white adipose tissue (WAT), which increases lipolysis and results in the suppression of body weight gain [92]. essential oils (the product is the same), can have various names that Stevi T., Beri T., avikin K., Sokovi M., Goevac D., Dimki I., Stankovi S. Antifungal activity of selected essential oils against fungi isolated from medicinal plant. Letizia C.S., Cocchiara J., Lalko J., Api A.M. Fragrance material review on linalool. It has been used in treating epilepsy and seizures [54]. Essential oil inhalation on blood pressure and salivary cortisol levels in prehypertensive and hypertensive subjects. It is used in combination with thyme oil to improve the quality traits of marinated chicken meat [38]. It also enhances sleeping time and is used to treat insomnia [54]. A pilot study performed in the waiting room of a mental health treatment center (Utah, USA) revealed that inhalation of bergamot EO for 15 minutes improves positive feelings [141]. Interestingly, the C. aurantium flower extract showed anti-amnesic and repairing effects on memory, learning impairments, and behavioral disorders induced by scopolamine, and has the potential to treat Alzheimers disease [72]. Prevention of glutamate accumulation and upregulation of phospho-Akt may account for neuroprotection afforded by bergamot essential oil against brain injury induced by focal cerebral ischemia in rat. Selected oxidized fragrance terpenes are common contact allergens. Sweet orange EO was reported to inhibit the growth of several bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [40,41,42,43], as well as several fungal species, such as Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger, A. terreus, Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium herbarum, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium oxysporum, Helminthosporium oryzae, Penicillium chrysogenum, P. verrucosum, and Trichoderma viride [10,44,45]. It exerted its antianxiety effects by regulating serotonin (5-HT) receptors in rats [57] and its antidepressant effects through the monoaminergic system in mice [58]. Bitter orange EO showed good radical-scavenging activity [53], largely due to the high d-limonene content [12,13] and its microencapsulated form, which was effective in reducing oxidative stress in acute otitis media rats [61]. Menenghini C.L., Rantuccio F., Lomuto M. Additives, vehicles and active drugs of topical medicaments as causes of delayed-type allergic dermatitis. Jenner P.M., Hagan E.C., Taylor J.M., Cook E.L., Fitzhugh O.G. Anticoccidial efficacy of naringenin and a grapefruit peel extract in growing lambs naturally-infected with. Smaller resolutions may cause the Hata T., Sakaguchi I., Mori M., Ikeda N., Kato Y., Minamino M., Watabe K. Induction of apoptosis by. D-limonene rich volatile oil from blood oranges inhibits angiogenesis, metastasis and cell death in human colon cancer cells. Converting citrus wastes into value-added products: Economic and environmently friendly approaches. Young A.R., Walker S.L., Kinley J.S., Plastow S.R., Averbeck D., Morlire P., Dubertret L. Phototumorigenesis studies of 5-methoxypsoralen in bergamot oil: Evaluation and modification of risk of human use in an albino mouse skin model. from the same plant using different extraction methods can be Bergamot EO inhibited tumor formation by the carcinogen NDMA in vitro by more than 70% [136]. It efficiently inhibits adipogenesis via inhibiting the accumulation of triglycerides [117]. Limited data suggests minimal toxicity. An experimental study on the effectiveness of massage with aromatic ginger and orange essential oil for moderate-to-severe knee pain among the elderly in Hong Kong. It caused no irritation when tested at 2% on 1200 dermatitis patients, with only two (0.17%) patients showing sensitivity reaction [170], whereas when tested at 10% in 590 eczema patients, 0.5% of the patients had reactions [171]. Linalool is a sedative, an antidepressant, and an anticancer, antifungal, and pesticidal EO [177,178,179,180]. used because the first essencesproduced by a similar Toxic profile of bergamot essential oil on survival and proliferation of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. amount of citrus oil for commercial use is made by vapour When tested at 520%, no skin reaction was observed [186]. Injections of orange EO in mice 24 h after subcutaneous injections with dibenzo-[]-pyrene (DBP) reduced the tumor incidence to less than 50% after 30 weeks [36]. Undiluted d-limonene was moderately irritating to rabbits [167]. It also inhibits the growth of many fungi including Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Rhizopus stolonifer, Aspergillus niger, A. parasiticus, Rhizoctonia solani, Candida albicans, and C. parapsilosis [111,113]. Verzera A., Trozzi A., Stagno dAlcontres I., Mondello L., Dugo G., Sebastiani E. The composition of the volatile fraction of calabrian bergamot essential oil. Matiz G., Osorio M.R., Camacho F., Atencia M., Herazo J. It increased social interactions for rats (time spent in active social interaction), and increased exploration time in the open arms of the elevated plus-maze (EPM) [55]. bittersweet and perfumery varieties. 8600 Rockville Pike C. reticulata EO showed a moderate radical scavenging activity [83] mainly due to the high d-limonene content [12]. Asjad H., Akhtar M., Bashir S., Gulzar B., Khalid R., Asad M. Phenol, flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity of six common citrus plants in Pakistan. peel. Sex differences in the citrus lemon essential oil-induced increase of hippocampal acetylcholine release in rats exposed to a persistent painful stimulation. optimised for 1024 x 768 resolution. The oil also showed a considerable radical-scavenging activity evaluated by a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test [161,162] due to the high d-limonene content [12,13]. -Terpinene is an antioxidant [176]. Inhaling neroli odor enhances sexual desire [59]. Ikeda H., Takasu S., Murase K. Contribution of anterior cingulate cortex and descending pain inhibitory system to analgesic effect of lemon odor in mice. In addition, it is a potent antibacterial against Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus durans, E. hirae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, S. aureus, Enterobacter cloacae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Shigella flexnerii, Streptococcus faecalis, Citrobacter spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella typhi [111,113]. The distilled oils are not phototoxic, while the expressed oils carry a low to moderate risk of phototoxicity (Table 4) [167] due to the presence of furanocoumarins [168]. Akhlaghi M., Shabanian G., Rafieian-Kopaei M., Parvin N., Saadat M., Akhlaghi M. Farshbaf-Khalili A., Kamalifard M., Namadian M. Comparison of the effect of lavender and bitter orange on anxiety in postmenopausal women: A triple-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. Several studies showed a broad spectrum antifungal activity of bergamot EO against Hanseniaspora guilliermondii, Debaryomyces hansenii, Kluyveromyces fragilis, Rhodotorula rubra, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Penicillium italicum, Fusarium solani, F. sporotrichioides, F. oxysporum, Curvularia lunata, Verticillium dahliae, Phomopsis sp., Phoma sp., and Myrothechium verrucaria [142,143,145]. It showed a 100% singlet oxygen scavenging activity at all concentrations between 0.1 and 2% [20,78]. Neroli EO is effective in reducing stress and improving the endocrine system. Sharma K., Mahato N., Cho M.H., Lee Y.R. Yuzu extract was reported to exert anti-diabetic activity through increasing glucose uptake in C2C12 myotubes by modulating the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-) signaling pathways. Zang L., Shimada Y., Kawajiri J., Tanaka T., Nishimura N. Effects of yuzu (. In case of applying expressed EOs to the skin in a dose higher than the maximum dermal use level, it is recommended to avoid exposure to sunlight for at least 12 h [8]. The antimicrobial effects of. Kumquat EO showed antiproliferative action against human prostate cancer (LNCaP) cells via inducing apoptosis and inhibition of inflammation [161]. Public Health. It is neither toxic nor carcinogenic [8]. The Sanguinetti M., Posteraro B., Romano L., Battaglia F., Lopizzo T., De Carolis E., Fadda G. In vitro activity of. Schlede E., Aberer W., Fuchs T., Gerner I., Lessmann H., Maurer T., Rossbacher R., Stropp G., Wagner E., Kayser D. Chemical substances and contact allergy244 substances ranked according to allergenic potency. Bagetta G., Morrone L.A., Rombol L., Amantea D., Russo R., Berliocchi L., Sakurada S., Sakurada T., Rotiroti D., Corasaniti M.T. Han X., Gibson J., Eggett D.L., Parker T.L. The analgesic effect of lemon EO is induced by dopamine-related activation of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the descending pain inhibitory system [98]. process resembled oil in composition. National Library of Medicine will also be available for a limited time. Bickers D., Calow P., Greim H., Hanifin J.M., Rogers A.E., Saurat J.H., Sipes I.G., Smith R.L., Tagami H. A toxicologic and dermatologic assessment of linalool and related esters when used as fragrance ingredients. Homburger F., Treger A., Boger E. Inhibition of murine subcutaneous and intravenous benzo(rst)pentaphene carcinogenesis by sweet orange oils and d-limonene. It was not mutagenic in the Ames test [191], and had no genotoxic effect [192].