mosphere 178, 466478. Increasing

Chemosphere 178, 466478. Increasing pyrolysis temperature had a significant effect on the elemental constituents and H/C (the degree of aromaticity) (Al-Wabel et al., 2013) and O/C (the degree of polarity) ratios (Mimmo et al., 2014) of raw biochars. 107, 411418. doi: 10.3390/en5124952, Jeong, C. Y., Dodla, S. K., and Wang, J. J. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.035, Domingues, R. R., Trugilho, P. F., Silva, C. A., De Melo, I. C. N., Melo, L. C., Magriotis, Z. M., et al. (2013). Chem. Res. 118, 158162. Technol. Biofuels production through biomass pyrolysisa technological review. Figure 7. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2014.11.011, Zhang, J., L, F., Luo, C., Shao, L., and He, P. (2014). PLoS ONE 12:e0176884. The baselines of the graphs were revised in Origin lab (Version 2019b) to allow a correct comparison of the intensity of the peaks. SEM images of (A) R-MS 700; (B) US-MS 700. Further increases in pyrolysis temperature exhibited small changes in %C and ash content (although there was wider variation in ash content for SG) and almost no changes in both H/C and O/C ratios (although there was wider variation in O/C for SG). However, its intensity was typically reduced at higher temperatures. Fuel 235, 14751491. Bioresource Technology 101, 88688872. Technol. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.08.077. Similar to the surface areas, the pore volumes also exhibit a trend where maximum and minimum pore volumes can be obtained for US-MS 700 and US-SB 500 with the values of 0.21 and 0.11 cc/g, respectively. Influence of pyrolysis temperature and holding time on properties of biochar derived from medicinal herb (radix isatidis) residue and its effect on soil CO2 emission. Public Health 16:1976. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16111976, Fu, R., Liu, Y., Lou, Z., Wang, Z., Baig, S. A., and Xu, X. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.08.112, Antonakou, E., Lappas, A., Nilsen, M. H., Bouzga, A., and Stcker, M. (2006). Brewer, C. E. (2012). The ID/IG ratio for this category falls in the following range- 0.650.88 for MS, 0.700.88 for SG, 0.580.83 for CS and 0.591.01 for SB. All raw biochars exhibited a gradual increase in adsorption capacity in the range of 6788% while increasing the temperature from 500 to 600C. A., and Jaroniec, M. (2020). Petroleum 3, 3750. Energy 129, 695716. Effect of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature on properties of biochar governing end use efficacy. Figure 2. (2014). 375:122011. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2019.122011, Zhou, Y., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A. R., Fang, J., Sun, Y., and Cao, X. Low frequency ultrasound enhanced dual amination of biochar: a nitrogen-enriched sorbent for CO2 capture. (2013). Aminated SB had the lowest carbon and highest ash contents that resulted in low adsorption capacity. (2013). The other notable change is the reduction of the peak at 1,600 cm1, the highest intensity of which is observed in pyrolysis temperature of 500C; this can be explained as a result of removal of oxygen functional groups at elevated temperature which is otherwise observed at lower temperature such as 500C and consistent with the elemental analysis results (Table 3). Additionally, surface area and pore volumes were also enhanced at elevated temperatures up to 700C. These gasses emanate throughout the structure, promoting disorder until >1,000C. J. Nanomater. (2007). Biomass Bioenergy 62, 149157. (2014). Figure 8. As found from the figures, the spectra include O-H stretching vibrations of hydrogen bonded hydroxyl groups at 3,3003,600 cm1, and CO2 absorption peak at 2,300 cm1. Compared to other activated biochar samples, SB showed the least ID/IG changes for 500, 600 and 700C, though the value increased to 0.89 by a further increase of temperature to 800C. Bioresour. (2008). In addition, the most notable change in the ID/IG intensity ratio of both herbaceous and agro-industrial chars was observed when the temperature was raised from 500 to 600C followed by a slight increment from 600 to 800C. doi: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b03056, Brassard, P., Godbout, S., Raghavan, V., Palacios, J., Grenier, M., and Zegan, D. (2017). min1) at a heating rate of 5C min1, from 21 to 700C. Effects of ultrasound on adsorptiondesorption of p-chlorophenol on granular activated carbon. The effect of bioenergy expansion: food, energy, and environment. (2006). On a theory of the van der waals adsorption of gases. Fuel 225, 287298. Consistent with this, almost all activated biochars (except A-SG-600/700 and A-SB-700/800) demonstrated a significant increase in the ID/IG ratio compared with their pristine condition (Table S2). J. Therm. (2019). A. Figure 4. 10, 55855589. Characterization of pyrolysis products from slow pyrolysis of live and dead vegetation native to the southern United States. doi: 10.1002/ep.12783, Paris, O., Zollfrank, C., and Zickler, G. A. (2013). Herbaceous (MS and SG) and agro-industrial based biochars (CS and SB) were used for synthesizing biochars at four different pyrolysis temperatures that ranged from 500 to 800C. 17, 391398. Res. Clean. Biochar from pruning residues as a soil amendment: effects of pyrolysis temperature and particle size. Further increase of the temperature to 700C magnifies surface area and pore volume, especially for the micropores. The authors are also thankful to Professor Sanjay Mishra of the University of Memphis and Mr. Rami Al-Sughayer of The University of Mississippi for their help to conduct XRD and TGA analyses, respectively. The FTIR results for aminated samples showed amino or nitrogen containing functionality such as C-N at 1,0001,250 cm1, which is attributed to the attachment of aliphatic amine. FTIR spectra of the raw and aminated biochars derived under different temperatures are depicted in Figures 5AD. (2005). The peak around 1,026 cm1 is attributed to C-O stretching vibrations or the C-N stretch of an aliphatic primary amine (Coates, 2006). Energies 9:526. doi: 10.3390/en9070526, Zanzi, R., Sjstrm, K., and Bjrnbom, E. (2002). The sharp peak at the 2 values around 23 associated with the crystalline cellulose for amorphous regions (Figure 8A) (Jiang et al., 2007; Osman et al., 2018). Reduction in %N and %S contents can be attributed to the volatilization of nutrients at a high temperature which were resistant at low temperature and not easily volatilized. Pyrolysis temperature had a lesser impact on enhancing CO2 capture capacity of raw chars. Energies 5, 49525001. The TGA curve for aminated samples (7B) have similar trend as observed for raw samples where the samples showed reduction in mass around 6070C attributed to the desorption of moisture. MS, Miscatanthus; SG, Switchgrass; CS, Corn stover; SB, Sugarcane bagasse; R, Raw; US, Ultrasound Activated. However, an increasing trend was observed in the ash content of agro-industrial-based biochars with temperature, indicating the domination of temperature effect over amination impact. Table S1 (organic analysis) depicts gradual increment in %C contents of aminated MS samples with temperature, which is consistent to what was obtained for raw chars. Raman spectra of raw and activated samples (A) miscanthus, (B) switchgrass, (C) corn stover, and (D) sugarcane bagasse synthesized at different pyrolysis temperatures. As observed from Figure 9, the sono-aminated chars have much higher adsorption capacities (almost 3 times) those of raw chars. Technol. The plots correspond to the volume of adsorbed gas with respect to the relative pressure, indicating adsorption ability of the chars. It must also be highlighted that the activating treatments of the biochars were conducted near room temperature, making the sonication and amination activation processes notably energy efficient, compared to thermal activation. Soc. Generally, the minimum CO2 capture was observed in agro-industrial category, particularly SB biochar. Energy Fuels 32, 1174211748. The figures also indicated that the volume adsorbed is higher for biochar samples synthesized at high temperature. doi: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2007.01.001, Osman, A. I., Ahmed, A. T., Johnston, C. R., and Rooney, D. W. (2018). 231, 512518. An innovative agro-forestry supply chain for residual biomass: physicochemical characterisation of biochar from olive and hazelnut pellets. Effect of ultrasonic irradiation on preparation and properties of ionogels. 164, 310. 7, 269276. A., and Redwine, C. W. (2014). 122, 2132. doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.11.010, Sun, Y., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Fang, J., Zhang, M., Zhou, Y., et al. As found from Table 2, upon sonication the microporous surface area and pore volumes for all the biochars increased. US-MS 700 showed the maximum surface areas with the values of 532 and 588 m2/g for micro and micro-meso porosity, respectively, whereas US-SB 500 showed minimum values for the micro and micro-mesoporous surface areas (192 and 250 m2/g). doi: 10.1039/C7GC03457A, Mia, S., Dijkstra, F. A., and Singh, B. Eng. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0156894, Sadaka, S., Sharara, M., Ashworth, A., Keyser, P., Allen, F., and Wright, A. A similar observation has been reported by Major and Jones et al. The enhancement of surface area and pore volumes was caused by the degradation of the organic materials (hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignin) and the formation of vascular bundles or channel structures during pyrolysis (Kim W. K. et al., 2013; Li et al., 2013). Eng. (2018). Effects of feedstock type and pyrolysis temperature on potential applications of biochar. This shows that surface area is significantly affected by the biochar feedstock and pyrolysis temperature. Int. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113888, Gmiz, B., Hall, K., Spokas, K. A., and Cox, L. (2019). Sajjadi, B., Zubatiuk, T., Leszczynska, D., Leszczynski, J., and Chen, W. Y. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.12.165, Amini, E., Safdari, M.-S., Deyoung, J. T., Weise, D. R., and Fletcher, T. H. (2019). Environ. Similar to raw biochars, sono-chemically functionalized samples exhibited an increasing trend of adsorption capacities with temperature up to 700C, followed by a reduction at 800C; optimum adsorption capacities were obtained for temperatures 600700C, which is in accordance to the Table 3 that showed notable differences (>3% change) in %C contents of MS, SG and SB at 600C temperature. Fuel 84, 13281334. 44, 12471253. This furthermore proves that the lower temperature derived biochars were less thermally stable than the higher temperature derived ones, probably because they were not fully carbonized (Sun et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2017). Comparing the figures, it can be observed that miscanthus samples (Figure S2A) showed the highest value for the adsorbed volume corresponding to their highest adsorption capacity than any other biochar samples. Accordingly, like other aminated biochars, A-SB-700 and A-SB-600 demonstrated a much greater adsorption compared with A-SB-500 and A-SB-800. The more the adsorbed volume, the higher will be the adsorption capacity. 35, 777815. Cleaner production of iron by using waste macadamia biomass as a carbon resource. doi: 10.1016/j.jaap.2017.02.018, Wang, S., Gao, B., Zimmerman, A. R., Li, Y., Ma, L., Harris, W. G., et al. Consistent with these observations, the C content of agro-industrial-based biochars (CS and SB) increased with temperature and also with respect to the %C content of their corresponding raw chars. Appl. Influence of pyrolysis temperature on physico-chemical properties of corn stover (Zea mays L.) biochar and feasibility for carbon capture and energy balance. doi: 10.5539/jas.v5n1p1, Pilon, G., and Lavoie, J.-M. (2013). Beyond this, the main mass losses started at around 310320C for R-MS-500 and 350390C for R-MS-600 and R-MS-700, respectively and followed the trend as observed in the literature (Zhao et al., 2017). Then, the reactor was cooled to 333 K and the helium gas was switched to a simulated flue gas consisting of 10 vol. In contrast to herbaceous biochars, US-CS 700 (Figure 3B) and US-SB 700 (Figure 4B) show significant increased porosity and greater structural deformations upon sonication. Green preparation of magnetic biochar for the effective accumulation of Pb(II): performance and mechanism. Prod. This leads to the generation of porosity more in the agro-industrial residues (CS and SB) than herbaceous residues (MS and SG). doi: 10.1016/S13504177(02)001372, Haszeldine, R. S. (2009). A., and Ashwath, N. (2012). Surface area and pore volume for herbaceous chars (MS and SG) are higher than agro-industrial chars (CS and SB). MS, Miscatanthus; SG, Switchgrass; CS, Corn stover; SB, Sugarcane bagasse; R, Raw; A, Ultrasound Amine Activated. (2016). Technol. Evaluation of various types of Al-MCM-41 materials as catalysts in biomass pyrolysis for the production of bio-fuels and chemicals. Pyrolysis of eucalyptus at different heating rates: studies of char characterization and oxidative reactivity. J. Similar structural features are also observed for CS (Figure 3A) and SB (Figure 4A), which exhibit rough, irregular and bundle like shapes. Comparing corn stover and switchgrass biochar: characterization and sorption properties. The increase in carbon content at higher temperature reflects the increasing degree of carbonization (Zhou et al., 2013) and the decrease in H and O contents is likely due to dehydration reactions, the decomposition of the oxygenated bonds, and the release of low molecular weight byproducts containing H and O. A CO-CO2 analyzer (ZRH Infrared Gas Analyzer, CAI) connected to the set-up was used to detect the concentration of CO2 before and after the experiment. It can be concluded that elevated pyrolysis temperature showed overall reduction in elemental %N contents of both raw and aminated chars (Table S1), though a sudden jump in N content of almost all samples was observed at 800C. Eng. Soil Tillage Res. This result is likely due to the degradation and depolymerization of lignocellulosic structure. doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.01.004, Nwajiaku, I. M., Olanrewaju, J. S., Sato, K., Tokunari, T., Kitano, S., and Masunaga, T. (2018). Sonochem. Biochar Characterization and Engineering Ames, IA. Yet, the aminated MS, particularly at 600 and 700C, represented the maximum CO2 adsorption. doi: 10.1038/nature04969, Suliman, W., Harsh, J. However, the adsorption capacity for sawdust biochar pyrolyzed at 500C and activated under N2 environment exhibited higher value than the adsorption capacity data obtained in the present study (Bamdad et al., 2018). 10, 109114. This is consistent with Raman and textural analysis that showed substantial increment in intensity ratio and surface area values, respectively, upon increasing the temperature from 500 to 600C. Various other support from the University of Mississippi is also gratefully acknowledged. SEM images of (A) R-CS 700 and (B) US- CS 700. Sci. 62, 37913799. 20, 22692278. (2012). The biochars underwent two-step sonochemical activation: low-frequency low-temperature ultrasound activation followed by TEPA functionalization. The observation is consistent with the literature, too (Zhou et al., 2013; Yuan et al., 2014). doi: 10.15376/biores.9.4.76227635, Bamdad, H., Hawboldt, K., and Macquarrie, S. (2018). This higher decomposition temperatures of the amine activated samples (in comparison to the raw samples) revealed that the amine groups were effectively stabilized on the biochar (Plaza et al., 2008). (2008). indicates a more hydrophobic structure (Peterson et al., 2013). Notably, higher pyrolysis temperatures gave rise to the peak at 23 consistent to the literature (Kim et al., 2012). For example, on one hand, aminated MS contained the least N content compared to the other biochars, but on the other hand, MS structure involved the maximum porosity and surface area. The decomposition of lignin and the quick release of H2 and CH4 contribute to a sharp increase of the surface area and pore volumes from 500 to 600C. 538, 137144. DM: interpretation of results and revising the manuscript. Graphitization of miscanthus grass biocarbon enhanced by in situ generated FeCo nanoparticles. For instance, as per the Figure S2A, the adsorbed volume increases for both raw and ultrasound aminated samples as temperature is increased from 500 to 700C and then reduces for 800C. Similar to herbaceous chars, the trend for elemental analysis of agro-industrials is similar to the trend for surface area analysis data (Table 2) that showed a substantial change in surface area and pore volumes up to 700C with a reduction at 800C. Calorim. It is considered to be one of the most informative methods for investigation of the structural perfection of carbonaceous material (such as biochar). Bioresour. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00085/full#supplementary-material, Ahmad, M., Lee, S. S., Dou, X., Mohan, D., Sung, J.-K., Yang, J. E., et al. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2013.07.036, Keywords: various pyrolysis temperature, biochar, ultrasound, tetraethylenepentamine, CO2 adsorption, Citation: Chatterjee R, Sajjadi B, Chen W-Y, Mattern DL, Hammer N, Raman V and Dorris A (2020) Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature on PhysicoChemical Properties and Acoustic-Based Amination of Biochar for Efficient CO2 Adsorption. Aging induced changes in biochar's functionality and adsorption behavior for phosphate and ammonium. Nature 442, 282286. Appl. (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.088, Jahirul, M. I., Rasul, M. G., Chowdhury, A. Sorption of heavy metals on chitosan-modified biochars and its biological effects. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2006.03.021, Ashworth, A. J., Sadaka, S. S., Allen, F. L., Sharara, M. A., and Keyser, P. D. (2014). doi: 10.1016/S09619534(02)000612, Zhang, H., Chen, C., Gray, E. M., and Boyd, S. E. (2017). Prediction of sawdust pyrolysis yields from a flat-flame burner using the CPD model. 148, 196201. The adsorption capacities for the sorbent materials can be explained using the adsorption isotherm plots as shown in Figures S2, S3. Sonochem. Technol. Although %N content was maximum at 500C, maximum %C content was achieved at 700C. The increasing of pyrolysis temperature resulted in high %C and %ash contents with a reduction of %H, %O and %N contents for most of the samples with most prominent changes observed in the temperature range of 500700C. 176, 288291. The mass loss around 450460C (TGA curve of Figure 7B) corresponds to the decomposition of the immobilized amine groups (Plaza et al., 2008). Eng. Carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and the ash content of raw and activated biochars synthesized under different temperatures are summarized in Table 3 and the corresponding organic analysis on a dry ash-free basis are reported in Table S1. (2017). Chemosphere 90, 26232630. (2005). 26, 390397. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.10.074, Coates, J. The maximum values were observed for MS, ranging from 0.78 to 0.96 for 500 to 800C, respectively, consistent with their surface area data (Table 2). These intermediate temperatures are clearly the pyrolysis temperatures of choice for maximizing adsorption capacity. However, the peaks around 23, 30, and 43 showed reduction in intensity indicates the loss of crystallinity due to TEPA treatment. Eng. Biochar characterization and engineering theses and dissertations. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.026, Yuan, H., Lu, T., Wang, Y., Huang, H., and Chen, Y. In order to prevent misinterpretation concerning organic content, elemental analysis of aminated samples is discussed by eliminating the impact of ash alteration. SEM images of (A) R-SB 700 and (B) US- SB 700. Figure 5. Nitrogen functionalized biochar as a renewable adsorbent for efficient CO2 removal. PLoS ONE 11:e0156894. Adsorption capacities of raw and sono-aminated biochars synthesized under different temperature conditions are presented in Figure 9. This peak comes from the formation and successive ordering of aromatic carbon (Paris et al., 2005) indicating crystallization (Tushar et al., 2012). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. The production of engineered biochars in a vertical auger pyrolysis reactor for carbon sequestration. Oxygen (O) content was calculated by difference (100%%C+%H+%N+%S+%ash). doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.11.021, Kim, W.-K., Shim, T., Kim, Y.-S., Hyun, S., Ryu, C., Park, Y.-K., et al. A similar trend can be observed for other raw and aminated biochars samples too. (2016). Ultrasound cavitation intensified amine functionalization: a feasible strategy for enhancing CO2 capture capacity of biochar. Appl. doi: 10.1021/jf501139f, Cetin, E., Gupta, R., and Moghtaderi, B. In terms of structural transformation, the higher extent of carbonization indicates a more aromatic structure (Al-Wabel et al., 2013), and loss of O and H functional groups (such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, etc.) For MS-800 the curve is mostly flat indicating the negligible loss due to its high synthesis temperature. Based on Figure 9, adsorption capacities for activated chars can be categorized as: 0.861.23, 2.152.53, 2.222.89, and 1.341.74 mmol/g for the temperature ranges of 500, 600, 700, and 800C, respectively. J. Anal. Effect of pH on surface characteristics of switchgrass-derived biochars produced by fast pyrolysis. Chem. Figure 1. 8 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00085/full#supplementary-material, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Activated carbon, biochar and charcoal: linkages and synergies across pyrogenic carbon's ABCs. Int. The spectra exhibit two prominent peaks at 1,400 and 1,600 cm1 designated as D and G peaks. Photochemical and acoustic interactions of biochar with CO2 and H2O: applications in power generation and CO2 capture. Eng. For instance, the shape of the above described isotherms are similar to Type I isotherms (as per IUPAC classification) which are common for microporous solids (Brunauer et al., 1940). Environ. Notable changes were observed in the structural and chemical properties of activated chars with pyrolysis temperature. The total weight loss for these samples can be listed as 26.7, 13.9, 11.8, and 9.5%, respectively for US-Am-MS 500, US-Am-MS 600, US-Am-MS 700 and US-Am-MS 800, respectively. Energies 10:1293. doi: 10.3390/en10091293, Zhao, Y., Zhang, R., Liu, H., Li, M., Chen, T., Chen, D., et al. This trend can be correlated to Tables 2, 3 that showed significant changes in surface areas and elemental compositions, respectively, when pyrolysis temperature was increased from 500 to 600C, irrespective of the biochar type. Figure 9. Pyrolysis 120, 200206. It is worth noting that the micro surface area of all biochars increased by almost 200 m2/g (on average) with a pyrolysis temperature increase of 500 to 700C. As observed from the figures the effect of sonication is more observable for agro-industrial (CS, SB) chars than herbaceous biochars (MS, SG). Bioresour. AIChE J. Bioresour. Biomass Bioenergy 23, 357366. The intensity ratio values as observed from Table S1 exhibited the highest increment for 600700C corresponding to their maximum adsorption capacity. Chem. (2017). 138, 266270. CHE-1532079). Polym. The following notable changes are observed for MS in the temperature range 500600C: %C increment from 75 to 82%; reduction in H/C and O/C ratios from 0.27 to 0.17 and 0.18 to 0.07, respectively, and %N content reduced by half. The presence of cellulose or other similar organic compounds is highlighted by the increase of the background level and by a large hump between 11 and 13 (Fancello et al., 2019). In terms of temperature effects, the maximum of N content was observed in the lower temperatures (600C for MS and 500C for SG), the N content was reduced for middle-ranged temperatures (600 or 700C) and enhanced by further increase of temperature (to 800C). For instance, aminated MS samples showed strong C-N peak at 600C compared to raw char which is also in accordance with %N content of A-MS-600 exhibiting 5 times increased value than R-MS-600 along with intense amine peak for A-MS-500 and A-MS-700 over the R-MS 500 and R-MS 700. SG behaved in a similar manner: %C content showed significant increase from 68 to 77% with lowering of H/C and O/C ratios in the range of 0.29 to 0.16 and 0.18 to 0.09, respectively, and the increment of ash from 10.8 to 12.8%. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.09.008, Imam, T., and Capareda, S. (2012). Technol. (2005). For all of the biochar samples, an increment in the ID/IG ratio was observed with increasing pyrolysis temperature, indicating that the structure of the biochar becomes more and more disordered. Effects of feedstock type, production method, and pyrolysis temperature on biochar and hydrochar properties. Similar to CS, it generally showed increased %C and ash content, and reduced H/C-O/C ratios and %N content, for the temperature range of 500800C, although values at 700C were often the most extreme. Ind. J. Agric. National Science Foundation (NSF EPSCoR RII Grant No. The tube voltage was 45 kV, and the current was 40 mA. Change in nutrient composition of biochar from rice husk and sugarcane bagasse at varying pyrolytic temperatures. Renew. Carbon 43, 5366. The fibrous surface is formed by parallel stripes and is partially covered with residual material, and pith is a more fragile and fragmented structure which is primarily cracks that connect neighboring cells on the surface of the walls. Am. CO2 adsorption capacities of both raw and sono-chemically activated biochar samples synthesized at different pyrolysis temperatures. 32, 559578. % CO2 balanced with He. Effects of pyrolysis temperature and heating time on biochar obtained from the pyrolysis of straw and lignosulfonate. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2004.07.016, Chatterjee, R., Sajjadi, B., Chen, W.-Y., Mattern, D. L., Egiebor, N. O., Hammer, N., et al. (2015). doi: 10.1016/B9780-08087872-0.005242, Brunauer, S., Deming, L. S., Deming, W. E., and Teller, E. (1940). Accordingly, the microsurface area and pore volumes for MS and SG ranged between 115325 m2/g and 0.060.16 cc/g over the temperature of 500800C. A narrow peak at around 30 was found and identified as amorphous carbon (Fu et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2019). Food Chem. The formation of aromatic structures began after the complete decomposition of the wood nanocomposite structure during the charring process (Paris et al., 2005). As observed, raw MS shows maximum adsorption capacities in comparison to all other raw chars (MS>SG>CS>SB) under all temperature ranges, although the differences are small. Chem. Int. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.056, Rafiq, M. K., Bachmann, R. T., Rafiq, M. T., Shang, Z., Joseph, S., and Long, R. (2016). Thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermogravimetry curves for all the biochars are presented in Figures 7A,B. As observed from Figure 1A, raw MS sample is characterized by jagged particles of varying size with vascular elements packed in bundles and possess a relatively flat surface which is also consistent to the literature (Zhang et al., 2014; Wang X. et al., 2015). Bioresour. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.04.094, Kim, P., Johnson, A. M., Essington, M. E., Radosevich, M., Kwon, W.-T., Lee, S.-H., et al. A comprehensive review on the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. FTIR spectra of raw and activated samples (A) miscanthus, (B) switchgrass, (C) corn stover, and (D) sugarcane bagasse synthesized at different pyrolysis temperatures. Renew. However, the same increment was observed by 30 s of ultrasound activation at ambient conditions. Carbon capture and storage: how green can black be? Thus, the above analysis show that pyrolysis temperature show overall increase in %C and %ash contents whereas %H, %O, and %N show reduction. 102, 52655269. A comprehensive review on physical activation of biochar for energy and environmental applications. Most of the biochars showed intensified peak at 1,4001,600 cm1 attributed to aromatic C=C stretching except for MS. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2004.08.034, Patwardhan, P. R., Dalluge, D. L., Shanks, B. H., and Brown, R. C. (2011). doi: 10.1016/j.jtice.2016.02.012, Gai, X., Wang, H., Liu, J., Zhai, L., Liu, S., Ren, T., et al. doi: 10.1002/pi.4407, Dhyani, V., and Bhaskar, T. (2018). For each experimental run, a biochar sample of 2 g was put inside the tube and heated under helium (99.99%) gas flow (500 cm3 min1) at 378 K for 1 h to remove moistures from the adsorbent. Sci. Received: 29 January 2020; Accepted: 24 April 2020; Published: 28 May 2020.